| 6 : Formal Filter In the previous tool kits , I addressed cultural issues and questions of full synonymy . The purpose here is to establish a series of other textual variables for which the ST can be screened . I shall begin with the smallest level at which a decision can be made about the use of language ( the level of sound or letter segments ) and move up to the larger level ( intertextual and generic links between texts ) . The schema of textual filters can be viewed in Section 4 : Schema of Textual Filters Phonic / Graphic Level This is the smallest level of detail or choice in composing texts , and represents choices made at the level of sound segments , phonemes , and letter segments , graphemes . Even at this level difference between meaning can be present ; compare , for example , ' This nosy cook ' , and ' This cosy nook ' . This level is most immediately relevant where sound or visual effects are apparent . Onomatopoeias , words whose sound imitates their meaning , are culturally determined , as may be the range of applications of a particular onomatopoeia in any given language . One example is the case of English ' squeak ' , which gives a single noun to the noises made by doors , mice , and new shoes . In other languages what we perceive as the same group of sounds may be perceived differently , and not all of the nouns used will necessarily be onomatopoeic : It cri cri ( crickets , cicadas , woodworm[ ! ] ) ; Sp chillido ( mouse ) , chirrido ( hinges ) , crujido ( new leather or rice crispies ) ; Fr cric-crac ( floorboards ) , couic ( mouse ) , craquement ( of new leather ) ; grincement ( hinges ) Ge quieken ( mouse ) , knarren ( door , wheel ) . The use of onomatopoeia may be incidental to a ST ; however , if its phonic / graphic level is a salient feature , it may pose a challenge for the translator . On such occasions , the translator may need to consider carefully whether , and how , to compensate for the loss of any salient onomatopoeia , perhaps by compensating with the addition of a sound effect through alliteration and assonance at the appropriate place . However , on occasion appropriate terms in both languages are fully or partially onomatopoeic ; for example , búho ( Spanish ) , Uhu ( German ) , CoBa ( Russian ; transliterated ) , gufo ( Italian ) , and hibon ( French ) are all onomatopoeic names ; however , their English equivalent , ( long-eared ) owl , is only partially so . Assonance ( repetition of vowels for rhyme ; recurrence of sound or letter clusters in the middle of a word ) and alliteration ( repetition of same sound or letter cluster at the beginning of a word ) may also prove a challenge to the translator , as in the alliteration ( bold ) and assonance ( italicised ) of ' a s w ift s n ifter a fter wards ' . Where the use of phonic effects is a salient feature of a ST or its use is not incidental , such as to highlight specific thematic concerns , then a careful approach is necessary . Consider the phonic level in the first two lines of John Keats 's ode , ' To Autumn '1820 ( full text here ) in which alliteration is in bold , and I have italicized assonance : Season of m ists and m ellow fr uit f ulness , Close boso m - fr iend of the m aturing sun ( from ' To Autumn ' , Keats ) As Hervey and Higgins ( 2002 : 79-80 ) argue , the context is essential . The combination of the title and the word ' fruitfulness ' evokes the colour of mature fruit and autumn leaves , yellow . The sun itself is likely to be such a colour , glowing like a mature fruit hanging low in the sky , and shining through the autumn haze . The m- alliteration of ' mists ' associates it with ' mellow ' and ' maturing ' , and - together with the previous image - it suggests a soft hazy mist rather than the cold and damp of wintertime . The -m in ' bosom ' links it to ' mellow ' , ' mists ' and ' maturing ' so that the image of mellow fruits now seems linked to milk-filled breasts , as if the season , sun and earth were unified in maternal bountifulness . This suggestion is again reinforced through the assonance and alliteration of ' fr uit f ulness ' , and ' fr iend ' . The phonic level here is manipulated to associate closely the key words in Keats 's creation of images , and their prominence reinforces the thematic content of the lines and therefore would need careful attention in translation . Be ware that phonic effects are used quite widely by prose writers and are not the sole province of poets . Prosodic Level The prosodic level , on the other hand , is largely the domain of poetry , although metric patterns are very occasionally found in prose . The prosodic level concerns metric schemes relating to rhythm and stress , which vary greatly between languages and language groups . For example , in the modern Romance languages versification is syllabic , that is , based on syllable count , but the method of syllable counting varies between languages . English metre , on the other hand , mainly uses syllable and stress metre . Each line is defined in terms of the number of feet , which comprise a group of stressed and unstressed syllables in a specific order . The most famous English metric pattern is the iambic pentameter : The cur /few tolls / the knell / of par /ting day / 1 2 3 4 5 This line has five feet ( divided by slashes and numbered ) and so is a pentameter . Each foot has two syllables , the first unstressed and the second stressed ( in bold ) , and so is an iambic foot . Some modern English poetry uses strong-stress metre in which only the stresses count when describing the line . For an introduction try James Fenton , An Introduction to English Poetry ( Viking , 2002 ) . Certain fixed forms , like the sonnet and the haiku , enjoy international currency , the form of others varies between languages , such as the ballad , which seems to be a global poetic genre . In most languages which use rhyme , ballads tend to rhyme on even lines only . In English the ballad has four accented syllables in odd lines , and three in even lines . In contrast , syllabic languages tend to use an octosyllabic line . The translation of poetry is particularly controversial , and this debate goes right to the heart of what poetry is really about : creating meaning or exploring form . As a consequence , in translating poetry it is particularly useful to focus on a very specific target audience : the needs of a student of the second-language , someone with an interest in a specific culture , and someone with an interest in poetry as an art form may be very different : Ille mi par esse deo videtur , Ille , si fas est , superare divos , qui sedens adversus identidem te spectat et audit dulce ridentem , misero quod omnis eripit sensus mihi ; He seems to me to be equal to a god , he seems to me , it is lawful , to surpass the gods , who , sitting opposite to you , keeps looking at you and hearing you sweetly laugh ; but this tears away all my senses , wretch that I am . He 'll hie me , par is he ? The God divide her , He 'll hie , see fastest , superior deity , Quiz - sitting adverse identity - mate , inspect it and audit - You 'll care ridden then , misery holds omens , Air rips the senses from me ; Catullus ; trans . Celia & Louis Zukovsky ; apud Hervey , Higgins & Haywood 1996 : 49 The first TT below Catullus 's Latin is a literal TT , which is intended to convey the message content . In contrast , the second TT by Zukovsky and Zukovsky attempts a phonemic approach that aims to convey the rhythm and phonic effect of the Latin . The decision to use one of these strategies would need to be based on very careful consideration of the potential target audience for any such TT . There is , of course , a mid-point between these two approaches , and it is perhaps to be advocated in the majority of situations . A communicative approach is one in which the translator pays careful attention to the formal structure of the poem in hand , perhaps taking into account differences in expectations about certain meters or rhyme schemes between source and target culture . The translator also pays careful attention to other salient features of the poem being translated , including other phonic features and content . Consider carefully as many of the versions of the first verse of Lewis Carroll 's ' Jabberwocky ' as you can , in which this is precisely the strategy adopted by the translators : Jabberwocky ' Twas brillig , and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe : All mimsy were the borogroves , And the mome raths outgrabe . Der Jammerwoch Es brillig war . Die schlicten Toven Wirrten und wimmelten in Waben ; Und aller-mümsige Burggoven Die mohmen Räth ' ausgraben . Galimatazo Brillaba , brumeando negro , el sol ; agiliscosos giroscaban los limazones banerrando por las váparas lejanas ; mimosos se fruncían los borogobios mientras el momio rantas murgiflaba . Le Jaseroque Il brilgue : los tóves lubricilleux Se gyrent en vrillant dans le guave , Enmimés sont les gougebosqueux , Et le momerade horsgrave . Grammatical Level This concerns arrangements of words ; such as the use of syntax , and word systems ( a pattern of words with an associative , and meaningful , common denominator ) . An example of a meaningful arrangement of words can be found in the Magpie rhyme : One for sorrow , Two for joy , Three for a girl , Four for a boy , Five for silver , Six for gold , Seven for a secret that 's never been told . The pattern is built around a number followed by a preposition . In lines one to six a further pattern is built up around pairs of lines : lines 1 and 2 conclude with a pair of abstract nouns , which are antonyms ; lines 3 and 4 conclude with an indefinite article followed by a pair of common nouns , again also antonyms ; and lines 5 and 6 end with two mass nouns in an ascending series . The final line breaks this pattern in its length , and its structure as it follows the preposition with an indefinite pronoun , an abstract noun , and a relative clause : Number + preposition ( for ) + 2 x abstract antonyms indefinite article + 2 x common nouns / antonyms 2 x mass nouns ascending series indef . article + abstract + relative clause The structure of the rhyme is clearly more important than the message content . For another example of elaborate grammatical arrangement see the quotation below from Tennyson 's ' The Ancient Sage ' . Word systems also frequently appear in literary texts . The following example is taken from the novel Count Julian ( Reivindicación del conde don Julián , 1970 ) by Spain 's Juan Goytisolo . The author is concerned by the fact that , despite Muslims occupying a large part of what is now modern Spain from the 8th to the 15th centuries , Islamic culture is often held in low esteem in Spain , and the debt of Spanish , and , by extension , European culture to it overlooked . However , there is no need for the reader to have any familiarity with Spanish to observe that there is an obvious word system at work : y galopando con ellos en desenfrenada razzia saquearás los campos de algodón , algarrobo , alfalfa vaciarás aljibes y albercas , demolerás almacenes y dársenas , arruinarás alquerías y fondas , pillarás alcobas , alacenas , zaguanes Lit ST : and galloping with them in a frenzied cavalcade you will destroy the fields of cotton , carob , alfalfa you will empty cisterns and tanks , you will demolish stores and dry docks , you will ruin farmhouses and hostels , you will pillage bedrooms , cupboards , hallways The key to the word system lies in the fact that many of the words in this extract begin with phonetic group al- , a clear indicator of a Spanish word 's origins in Arabic . In fact , upon closer examination all of the italicized words have their origins in Arabic either etymologically , culturally or as technologies introduced by the Muslims . The extract lists what will be lost or destroyed if Muslim influence on Hispanic culture were to be eradicated . This passage poses a particular challenge for the translator for a variety of reasons . English lacks the relationship of cultural debt to , but prestige over , Arabic that Goytisolo is attacking , so it is not possible simply to replicate the word system by replacing it with English words of Arabic origin . Many of the languages , such as French or Latin , from which English has borrowed words , phrases or concepts enjoy a relationship of high prestige in relation to English in British culture . Its mother language , Anglosaxon , is infamous for four letter words , and most English-language speakers are unaware of other specific areas of debt . The translator is left with three choices , it seems . The first is to replace the words comprising the word system with concepts drawn from languages of the former colonies , and whose contribution to British culture is not given the prestige they merit . The disadvantage here would be the replacement of specific Hispanic cultural terms derived from Arabic . The second is simply to translate the terms , without comment thereby giving rise to the loss of Goytisolo 's point . The third is to use some kind of exegetical technique at some point in order to make explicit the relationship between the two cultures . Sentential Level The Sentential Level treats the sentence as a self-contained vehicle for communication , starting with one word comments , such as ' Go ! ' , or ' Sorry ' . At the sentential level the structure ( or order of parts of speech ) creates different assumptions about the sentence 's particular communicative purpose through some of the following features : Intonation or punctuation and typography Clearly in speech the sentential level can be expressed through the manipulation of intonation and stress : The salt ( falling intonation : statement ) ; The salt ? ( rising intonation : question ; fall-rise : emphatic query ) ; The salt ! ( high , level intonation : command ) Whilst written texts lack this feature , they make use of punctuation , which has a much more limited range , to convey some of the purpose of the sentence . Like other features of language , punctuation norms differ between cultures and all translators should be familiar with the differences in punctuation usage between the languages ( and even language varieties , including UK and US English ) that they are translating . There is not space to consider this topic here ; however , most good , advanced grammar books contain a useful section on punctuation . For English , consider reading Lyne Truss 's Eats , Shoots and Leaves ( 2003 ) , whose title is based on the famous joke about the gun-totting panda who has correctly interpreted a mispunctuated encyclopaedia entry about its own habits . Written and oral texts make use of a number of other features to convey meaning and purpose at the sentential level : Sequential focus ( marked word order to convey meaning ) I told you to stay at home . You , I told to stay at home . Home - that 's where I told you to stay . In this series , the first sentence uses standard subject + verb + object structure . The second two sentences mark out the focus or theme that is being emphasized by placing it at the beginning of the sentence . Illocutionary particles ( innit ? H'mmm , do n't you think ? alas ) These short words and phrases do not fit into syntax proper but simply mark the sentence as having a particular communicative purpose , and help guide the reader / listener as to how to take the utterance . They are discrete elements added for affective force not for their literal meaning : French : hélas ; tout de même ; bien : Je t'avais bien dit de rester chez toi . Italian : non è vero ; ma andiamo ( scoffing disbelief ) ; dunque ( emphatic ) . Spanish : ¿ verdad ? ; ¿ no es cierto ? ; ¿ qué sé yo ? ; pues . German : gell ? ; nich war ? ; aber ; auch ; modal particles , denn ( open and innocuous ) ; ja ( consensus - prevents defensive response ) ; doch mal ( disarming ) : Fahr doch / doch mal selber hin ! Why not go yourself ; Why not pop over yourself . Careful consideration should be given to STs that have features conveying meaning or purpose at the sentential level since they may well require compensation . The Discourse Level This level is concerned with the cohesion and coherence of the ST . Cogency is the degree to which text hangs together ; that is , its thread of intellectual interrelatedness . Cogency is expressed in coherence ( implicit thematic development ) and cohesion ( explicit and transparent linking of sentences through discourse markers and linguistic anaphora ) . The importance of cogency can be illustrated by examining the following text : I was getting hungry . I went downstairs . I knew the kitchen was on the ground floor . I was pretty sure that the kitchen must be on the ground floor . I do n't know why I was certain , but I was . I did n't expect to find the kitchen so easily . I made myself a sandwich . As an account , this narrative is coherent since , although it is not explicitly marked , the events depicted show a tactic but discernible development , and it seems to have an implied chronological structure . However , its limited cohesion is supplied through repetitions . Now consider another version of the same account : I was getting hungry . So I went downstairs . Well ... I knew the kitchen was on the ground floor . I mean , I was pretty sure that it must be there . Actually I do n't know why I was so certain , but I was . Still , I did n't expect to find it so easily . Anyway I made myself a sandwich . Here the account is coherent and cohesive . The cohesion derives from the use of discourse connectors ( in bold at the beginning of some sentences ) to set up links between them . They also act explain or comment on the speakers actions ( all the bold sections ) . In addition , the repetition is replaced by grammatical anaphora ( in italics ) . Anaphora is the replacement of previously used words and phrases by expressions referring back to them : it replaces ' the kitchen ' , and there , ' the ground floor ' . Needless to say , different languages have different degrees of tolerance for the use of anaphora . Languages with gendered noun systems often have sets of appropriate , gendered demonstrative pronouns which are in common use , and whose usage tolerance is higher than for ' it ' and ' them ' in English . Organization at the discourse level may introduce a progression ( similar to that discussed at the sentential level ) of patterns or themes between sentence types : Thou canst not prove the Nameless , O my son , Nor canst thou prove the world thou movest in , Thou canst not prove that thou art body alone , Thou canst not prove that thou art spirit alone , Nor canst thou prove that thou art both in one : Nor canst thou prove that thou art mortal - nay , my son . Thou canst not prove that I who speak with thee , Am not thyself in converse with thyself , For nothing worthy proving can be proven , Nor yet disproven . Wherefore thou be wise , Cleave ever to the sunnier side of doubt , Cling to Faith beyond the forms of Faith ! Tennyson , The Ancient Sage . This extract from Alfred , Lord Tennyson 's The Ancient Sage uses two long sentences , both starting at the beginning of lines with the words , ' Thou canst not prove ... ' ( in bold ) , and using enumeration . There is a marked decrease in length of these two sentences . They are contrasted with the final sentence which Tennyson opens mid-line with the discourse connector , ' Wherefore ... ' ( also in bold ) , which introduces his conclusion . The patterning is used for rhetorical , and climatic effect . Intertextual Level This refers to any meaningful relationship the ST bears to another text ( cultural artefact ) ; such as its genre membership , or imitation , parody or pastiche ; quotation or allusion . For example , individual chapters of David Lodge 's The British Museum is Falling Down pastiche the work of specific authors , whilst in James Joyce 's Ulysses they pastiche specific textual genres . Since the intertextual level often contains culturally-specific content , it may require special attention , and some compensation may be called for . For a useful discussion of intertextual techniques , see Peter Hutchinson , Games Authors Play ( London : Methuen , 1983 ) . Some intertextual references enjoy widespread knowledge ; such as the sign above the entrance to Hell in Dante 's Inferno : Lasciate ogni speranza , voi ch'entrate TT1 : Give up all hope , those people who are coming in . TT2 : Abandon all hope , ye who enter here . The translator would need to be making a special point in opting for TT1 , a rather literal rendering of the well known words , and not the more familiar version which appears as TT2 . The translator would , of course , need to be sure that the phrase was actually a quotation or allusion , and - where more than version exists - to decide which to use . Christiane Rochefort 's La Porte du fond ( 1988 ; discussed by Hervey & Higgins , 2002 ) offers a particularly interesting illustration of these questions . One section of the book is headed : ' Vous qui entrez ' ( ST1 ) , a structure more common in French than English , and consequently not overly marked . French readers may not , in fact , associate this phrase specifically with Dante . It soon becomes clear , however , that the novel focuses on hellish events : the narrator 's sexual abuse by her father . Eventually she tells us that she pinned a notice above her parent 's bedroom , Vous qui entrez / Perdez toute esperance ( ST2 ) , and chillingly that her father later said to her , ' perds l'espérance ma petite ' ( ST3 ) . Suspicions that ST1 is an allusion to Dante are now well founded . The translator is then in a difficult position since it is only the later context that makes this allusion clear . To translate ST1 as ' Ye who enter here ' would reveal the subtext very early on , and the cumulative strength of the allusion would be diminished in comparison with the ST : even ' You who enter ' may give too much away too early . Yet alternative translations , such as ' Those coming in ' lose a vital cohesive element in the thematic structure . There is bound to be loss ; the translator has decide which solution is less unacceptable . 5 : Synonymy | 7 : Semantic Filter Text by Louise M. Haywood , Department of Spanish & Portuguese Site Design and Implementation by Gavin Burnage and Yseult Jay . MML Computer-Assisted Translation Computer-Assisted Language Learning Facility Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages University of Cambridge Sidgwick Avenue , Cambridge , CB3 9DA For MML contact details , see the Contact List or full Staff LIst . Last updated on 08 July 2005 at 10:29 |