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= Program structure

This chapter covers the program structure of the Groovy programming language.

== Package names

Package names play exactly the same role as in Java. They allows us to separate the code base without any conflicts. Groovy classes must specify their package before the class definition, else the default package is assumed. 

Defining a package is very similar to Java:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=package_statement,indent=0]
----

To refer to some class `Foo` in the `com.yoursite.com` package you will need to use the fully qualified name `com.yoursite.com.Foo`, or else you can use an `import` statement as we'll see below.

== Imports

In order to refer to any class you need a qualified reference to its package. Groovy follows Java's notion of allowing `import` statement to resolve class references.

For example, Groovy provides several builder classes, such as `MarkupBuilder`. `MarkupBuilder` is inside the package `groovy.xml` so in order to use this class, you need to `import` it as shown:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=import_statement,indent=0]
----

=== Default imports

Default imports are the imports that Groovy language provides by default. For example look at the following code:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=default_import,indent=0]
----

The same code in Java needs an import statement to `Date` class like this: ++import java.util.Date++. Groovy by default imports these classes for you. 

The below imports are added by groovy for you:

[source,groovy]
----
import java.lang.*
import java.util.*
import java.io.*
import java.net.*
import groovy.lang.*
import groovy.util.*
import java.math.BigInteger
import java.math.BigDecimal
----

This is done because the classes from these packages are most commonly used. By importing these boilerplate code is reduced.

=== Simple import

A simple import is an import statement where you fully define the class name along with the package. For example the import statement ++import groovy.xml.MarkupBuilder++ in the code below is a simple import which directly refers to a class inside a package.

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=import_statement,indent=0]
----

=== Star import

Groovy, like Java, provides a special way to import all classes from a package using `*`, the so called star import. `MarkupBuilder` is a class which is in package `groovy.xml`, alongside another class called `StreamingMarkupBuilder`. In case you need to use both classes, you can do:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=multiple_import,indent=0]
----

That's perfectly valid code. But with a `*` import, we can achieve the same effect with just one line. The star imports all the classes under package `groovy.xml`:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=star_import,indent=0]
----

One problem with `*` imports is that they can clutter your local namespace. But with the kinds of aliasing provided by Groovy, this can be solved easily. 

=== Static import

Groovy's static import capability allows you to reference imported classes as if they were static methods in your own class:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=static_imports,indent=0]
----

This is similar to Java's static import capability but is a more dynamic than Java in that it allows you to define methods with the same name as an imported method as long as you have different types:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=static_import_same_method_name_different_parameter_type,indent=0]
----
<1> static import of method
<2> declaration of method with same name as method statically imported above, but with a different parameter type
<3> compile error in java, but is valid groovy code

If you have the same types, the imported class takes precedence.

=== Static import aliasing

Static imports with the `as` keyword provide an elegant solution to namespace problems. Suppose you want to get a `Calendar` instance, using its `getInstance()` method. It's a static method, so we can use a static import. But instead of calling `getInstance()` every time, which can be misleading when separated from its class name, we can import it with an alias, to increase code readability:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=static_importswithas,indent=0]
----

Now, that's clean!

=== Static star import

A static star import is very similar to the regular star import. It will import all the static methods from the given class.

For example, lets say we need to calculate sines and cosines for our application. 
The class `java.lang.Math` has static methods named `sin` and `cos` which fit our need. With the help of a static star import, we can do:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=static_importswithstar,indent=0]
----

As you can see, we were able to access the methods `sin` and `cos` directly, without the `Math.` prefix.

=== Import aliasing

With type aliasing, we can refer to a fully qualified class name using a name of our choice. This can be done with the `as` keyword, as before.

For example we can import `java.sql.Date` as `SQLDate` and use it in the same file as `java.util.Date` without having to use the fully qualified name of either class:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/PackageTest.groovy[tags=alias_import,indent=0]
----

== Scripts versus classes

=== public static void main vs script
Groovy supports both scripts and classes. Take the following code for example:

[source,groovy]
.Main.groovy
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=groovy_class_with_main_method,indent=0]
----
<1> define a `Main` class, the name is arbitrary
<2> the `public static void main(String[])` method is usable as the main method of the class
<3> the main body of the method

This is typical code that you would find coming from Java, where code *has* to be embedded into a class to be executable.
Groovy makes it easier, the following code is equivalent:

[source,groovy]
.Main.groovy
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=groovy_script,indent=0]
----

A script can be considered as a class without needing to declare it, with some differences.

=== Script class

A gapi:groovy.lang.Script[script] is always compiled into a class. The Groovy compiler will compile the class for you,
with the body of the script copied into a `run` method. The previous example is therefore compiled as if it was the
following:

[source,groovy]
.Main.groovy
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=groovy_script_equiv,indent=0]
----
<1> The `Main` class extends the `groovy.lang.Script` class
<2> `groovy.lang.Script` requires a `run` method returning a value
<3> the script body goes into the `run` method
<4> the `main` method is automatically generated
<5> and delegates the execution of the script on the `run` method

If the script is in a file, then the base name of the file is used to determine the name of the generated script class.
In this example, if the name of the file is `Main.groovy`, then the script class is going to be `Main`.

=== Methods

It is possible to define methods into a script, as illustrated here:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=method_in_script,indent=0]
----

You can also mix methods and code. The generated script class will carry all methods into the script class, and
assemble all script bodies into the `run` method:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=multiple_methods_assembly,indent=0]
----
<1> script begins
<2> a method is defined within the script body
<3> and script continues

This code is internally converted into:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=multiple_methods_assembly_equiv,indent=0]
----
<1> the `power` method is copied as is into the generated script class
<2> first statement is copied into the `run` method
<3> second statement is copied into the `run` method

TIP: Even if Groovy creates a class from your script, it is totally transparent for the user. In particular, scripts
are compiled to bytecode, and line numbers are preserved. This implies that if an exception is thrown in a script,
the stack trace will show line numbers corresponding to the original script, not the generated code that we have shown.

=== Variables

Variables in a script do not require a type definition. This means that this script:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=script_with_variables,indent=0]
----

will behave the same as:

[source,groovy]
----
include::{projectdir}/src/spec/test/ScriptsAndClassesSpecTest.groovy[tags=script_with_untyped_variables,indent=0]
----

However there is a semantic difference between the two:

* if the variable is declared as in the first example, it is a _local variable_. It will be declared in the `run`
method that the compiler will generate and will *not* be visible outside of the script main body. In particular, such
a variable will *not* be visible in other methods of the script
* if the variable is undeclared, it goes into the gapi:groovy.lang.Script#getBinding()[script binding]. The binding is
visible from the methods, and is especially important if you use a script to interact with an application and need to
share data between the script and the application. Readers might refer to the 
<<guide-integrating.adoc#_integrating_groovy_in_a_java_application,integration guide>> for more information.

TIP: If you want a variable to become a field of the class without going into the `Binding`, you can use the
<<core-metaprogramming.adoc#xform-Field,@Field annotation>>.