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<div class="section" id="compaction">
<span id="id1"></span><h1>Compaction<a class="headerlink" href="#compaction" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h1>
<div class="section" id="strategies">
<h2>Strategies<a class="headerlink" href="#strategies" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Picking the right compaction strategy for your workload will ensure the best performance for both querying and for compaction itself.</p>
<dl class="simple">
<dt><a class="reference internal" href="stcs.html#stcs"><span class="std std-ref">Size Tiered Compaction Strategy</span></a></dt><dd><p>The default compaction strategy. Useful as a fallback when other strategies don’t fit the workload. Most useful for
non pure time series workloads with spinning disks, or when the I/O from <a class="reference internal" href="lcs.html#lcs"><span class="std std-ref">LCS</span></a> is too high.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a class="reference internal" href="lcs.html#lcs"><span class="std std-ref">Leveled Compaction Strategy</span></a></dt><dd><p>Leveled Compaction Strategy (LCS) is optimized for read heavy workloads, or workloads with lots of updates and deletes. It is not a good choice for immutable time series data.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a class="reference internal" href="twcs.html#twcs"><span class="std std-ref">Time Window Compaction Strategy</span></a></dt><dd><p>Time Window Compaction Strategy is designed for TTL’ed, mostly immutable time series data.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="section" id="types-of-compaction">
<h2>Types of compaction<a class="headerlink" href="#types-of-compaction" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>The concept of compaction is used for different kinds of operations in Cassandra, the common thing about these
operations is that it takes one or more sstables and output new sstables. The types of compactions are;</p>
<dl class="simple">
<dt>Minor compaction</dt><dd><p>triggered automatically in Cassandra.</p>
</dd>
<dt>Major compaction</dt><dd><p>a user executes a compaction over all sstables on the node.</p>
</dd>
<dt>User defined compaction</dt><dd><p>a user triggers a compaction on a given set of sstables.</p>
</dd>
<dt>Scrub</dt><dd><p>try to fix any broken sstables. This can actually remove valid data if that data is corrupted, if that happens you
will need to run a full repair on the node.</p>
</dd>
<dt>Upgradesstables</dt><dd><p>upgrade sstables to the latest version. Run this after upgrading to a new major version.</p>
</dd>
<dt>Cleanup</dt><dd><p>remove any ranges this node does not own anymore, typically triggered on neighbouring nodes after a node has been
bootstrapped since that node will take ownership of some ranges from those nodes.</p>
</dd>
<dt>Secondary index rebuild</dt><dd><p>rebuild the secondary indexes on the node.</p>
</dd>
<dt>Anticompaction</dt><dd><p>after repair the ranges that were actually repaired are split out of the sstables that existed when repair started.</p>
</dd>
<dt>Sub range compaction</dt><dd><p>It is possible to only compact a given sub range - this could be useful if you know a token that has been
misbehaving - either gathering many updates or many deletes. (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodetool</span> <span class="pre">compact</span> <span class="pre">-st</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">-et</span> <span class="pre">y</span></code>) will pick
all sstables containing the range between x and y and issue a compaction for those sstables. For STCS this will
most likely include all sstables but with LCS it can issue the compaction for a subset of the sstables. With LCS
the resulting sstable will end up in L0.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="section" id="when-is-a-minor-compaction-triggered">
<h2>When is a minor compaction triggered?<a class="headerlink" href="#when-is-a-minor-compaction-triggered" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p># When an sstable is added to the node through flushing/streaming etc.
# When autocompaction is enabled after being disabled (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nodetool</span> <span class="pre">enableautocompaction</span></code>)
# When compaction adds new sstables.
# A check for new minor compactions every 5 minutes.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="merging-sstables">
<h2>Merging sstables<a class="headerlink" href="#merging-sstables" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Compaction is about merging sstables, since partitions in sstables are sorted based on the hash of the partition key it
is possible to efficiently merge separate sstables. Content of each partition is also sorted so each partition can be
merged efficiently.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="tombstones-and-garbage-collection-gc-grace">
<h2>Tombstones and Garbage Collection (GC) Grace<a class="headerlink" href="#tombstones-and-garbage-collection-gc-grace" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<div class="section" id="why-tombstones">
<h3>Why Tombstones<a class="headerlink" href="#why-tombstones" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>When a delete request is received by Cassandra it does not actually remove the data from the underlying store. Instead
it writes a special piece of data known as a tombstone. The Tombstone represents the delete and causes all values which
occurred before the tombstone to not appear in queries to the database. This approach is used instead of removing values
because of the distributed nature of Cassandra.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="deletes-without-tombstones">
<h3>Deletes without tombstones<a class="headerlink" href="#deletes-without-tombstones" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>Imagine a three node cluster which has the value [A] replicated to every node.:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>[A], [A], [A]
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>If one of the nodes fails and and our delete operation only removes existing values we can end up with a cluster that
looks like:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>[], [], [A]
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Then a repair operation would replace the value of [A] back onto the two
nodes which are missing the value.:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>[A], [A], [A]
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This would cause our data to be resurrected even though it had been
deleted.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="deletes-with-tombstones">
<h3>Deletes with Tombstones<a class="headerlink" href="#deletes-with-tombstones" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>Starting again with a three node cluster which has the value [A] replicated to every node.:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>[A], [A], [A]
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>If instead of removing data we add a tombstone record, our single node failure situation will look like this.:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>[A, Tombstone[A]], [A, Tombstone[A]], [A]
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Now when we issue a repair the Tombstone will be copied to the replica, rather than the deleted data being
resurrected.:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>[A, Tombstone[A]], [A, Tombstone[A]], [A, Tombstone[A]]
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Our repair operation will correctly put the state of the system to what we expect with the record [A] marked as deleted
on all nodes. This does mean we will end up accruing Tombstones which will permanently accumulate disk space. To avoid
keeping tombstones forever we have a parameter known as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code> for every table in Cassandra.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="the-gc-grace-seconds-parameter-and-tombstone-removal">
<h3>The gc_grace_seconds parameter and Tombstone Removal<a class="headerlink" href="#the-gc-grace-seconds-parameter-and-tombstone-removal" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>The table level <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code> parameter controls how long Cassandra will retain tombstones through compaction
events before finally removing them. This duration should directly reflect the amount of time a user expects to allow
before recovering a failed node. After <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code> has expired the tombstone may be removed (meaning there will
no longer be any record that a certain piece of data was deleted), but as a tombstone can live in one sstable and the
data it covers in another, a compaction must also include both sstable for a tombstone to be removed. More precisely, to
be able to drop an actual tombstone the following needs to be true;</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li><p>The tombstone must be older than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code></p></li>
<li><p>If partition X contains the tombstone, the sstable containing the partition plus all sstables containing data older
than the tombstone containing X must be included in the same compaction. We don’t need to care if the partition is in
an sstable if we can guarantee that all data in that sstable is newer than the tombstone. If the tombstone is older
than the data it cannot shadow that data.</p></li>
<li><p>If the option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">only_purge_repaired_tombstones</span></code> is enabled, tombstones are only removed if the data has also been
repaired.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>If a node remains down or disconnected for longer than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code> it’s deleted data will be repaired back to
the other nodes and re-appear in the cluster. This is basically the same as in the “Deletes without Tombstones” section.
Note that tombstones will not be removed until a compaction event even if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code> has elapsed.</p>
<p>The default value for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code> is 864000 which is equivalent to 10 days. This can be set when creating or
altering a table using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WITH</span> <span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="ttl">
<h2>TTL<a class="headerlink" href="#ttl" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Data in Cassandra can have an additional property called time to live - this is used to automatically drop data that has
expired once the time is reached. Once the TTL has expired the data is converted to a tombstone which stays around for
at least <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc_grace_seconds</span></code>. Note that if you mix data with TTL and data without TTL (or just different length of the
TTL) Cassandra will have a hard time dropping the tombstones created since the partition might span many sstables and
not all are compacted at once.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="fully-expired-sstables">
<h2>Fully expired sstables<a class="headerlink" href="#fully-expired-sstables" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>If an sstable contains only tombstones and it is guaranteed that that sstable is not shadowing data in any other sstable
compaction can drop that sstable. If you see sstables with only tombstones (note that TTL:ed data is considered
tombstones once the time to live has expired) but it is not being dropped by compaction, it is likely that other
sstables contain older data. There is a tool called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sstableexpiredblockers</span></code> that will list which sstables are
droppable and which are blocking them from being dropped. This is especially useful for time series compaction with
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeWindowCompactionStrategy</span></code> (and the deprecated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DateTieredCompactionStrategy</span></code>). With <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TimeWindowCompactionStrategy</span></code>
it is possible to remove the guarantee (not check for shadowing data) by enabling <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unsafe_aggressive_sstable_expiration</span></code>.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="repaired-unrepaired-data">
<h2>Repaired/unrepaired data<a class="headerlink" href="#repaired-unrepaired-data" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>With incremental repairs Cassandra must keep track of what data is repaired and what data is unrepaired. With
anticompaction repaired data is split out into repaired and unrepaired sstables. To avoid mixing up the data again
separate compaction strategy instances are run on the two sets of data, each instance only knowing about either the
repaired or the unrepaired sstables. This means that if you only run incremental repair once and then never again, you
might have very old data in the repaired sstables that block compaction from dropping tombstones in the unrepaired
(probably newer) sstables.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="data-directories">
<h2>Data directories<a class="headerlink" href="#data-directories" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Since tombstones and data can live in different sstables it is important to realize that losing an sstable might lead to
data becoming live again - the most common way of losing sstables is to have a hard drive break down. To avoid making
data live tombstones and actual data are always in the same data directory. This way, if a disk is lost, all versions of
a partition are lost and no data can get undeleted. To achieve this a compaction strategy instance per data directory is
run in addition to the compaction strategy instances containing repaired/unrepaired data, this means that if you have 4
data directories there will be 8 compaction strategy instances running. This has a few more benefits than just avoiding
data getting undeleted:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li><p>It is possible to run more compactions in parallel - leveled compaction will have several totally separate levelings
and each one can run compactions independently from the others.</p></li>
<li><p>Users can backup and restore a single data directory.</p></li>
<li><p>Note though that currently all data directories are considered equal, so if you have a tiny disk and a big disk
backing two data directories, the big one will be limited the by the small one. One work around to this is to create
more data directories backed by the big disk.</p></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="single-sstable-tombstone-compaction">
<h2>Single sstable tombstone compaction<a class="headerlink" href="#single-sstable-tombstone-compaction" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>When an sstable is written a histogram with the tombstone expiry times is created and this is used to try to find
sstables with very many tombstones and run single sstable compaction on that sstable in hope of being able to drop
tombstones in that sstable. Before starting this it is also checked how likely it is that any tombstones will actually
will be able to be dropped how much this sstable overlaps with other sstables. To avoid most of these checks the
compaction option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unchecked_tombstone_compaction</span></code> can be enabled.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="common-options">
<span id="compaction-options"></span><h2>Common options<a class="headerlink" href="#common-options" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>There is a number of common options for all the compaction strategies;</p>
<dl class="simple">
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enabled</span></code> (default: true)</dt><dd><p>Whether minor compactions should run. Note that you can have ‘enabled’: true as a compaction option and then do
‘nodetool enableautocompaction’ to start running compactions.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tombstone_threshold</span></code> (default: 0.2)</dt><dd><p>How much of the sstable should be tombstones for us to consider doing a single sstable compaction of that sstable.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tombstone_compaction_interval</span></code> (default: 86400s (1 day))</dt><dd><p>Since it might not be possible to drop any tombstones when doing a single sstable compaction we need to make sure
that one sstable is not constantly getting recompacted - this option states how often we should try for a given
sstable.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log_all</span></code> (default: false)</dt><dd><p>New detailed compaction logging, see <a class="reference internal" href="#detailed-compaction-logging"><span class="std std-ref">below</span></a>.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unchecked_tombstone_compaction</span></code> (default: false)</dt><dd><p>The single sstable compaction has quite strict checks for whether it should be started, this option disables those
checks and for some usecases this might be needed. Note that this does not change anything for the actual
compaction, tombstones are only dropped if it is safe to do so - it might just rewrite an sstable without being able
to drop any tombstones.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">only_purge_repaired_tombstone</span></code> (default: false)</dt><dd><p>Option to enable the extra safety of making sure that tombstones are only dropped if the data has been repaired.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">min_threshold</span></code> (default: 4)</dt><dd><p>Lower limit of number of sstables before a compaction is triggered. Not used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LeveledCompactionStrategy</span></code>.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">max_threshold</span></code> (default: 32)</dt><dd><p>Upper limit of number of sstables before a compaction is triggered. Not used for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">LeveledCompactionStrategy</span></code>.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
<p>Further, see the section on each strategy for specific additional options.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="compaction-nodetool-commands">
<h2>Compaction nodetool commands<a class="headerlink" href="#compaction-nodetool-commands" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>The <span class="xref std std-ref">nodetool</span> utility provides a number of commands related to compaction:</p>
<dl class="simple">
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">enableautocompaction</span></code></dt><dd><p>Enable compaction.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">disableautocompaction</span></code></dt><dd><p>Disable compaction.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setcompactionthroughput</span></code></dt><dd><p>How fast compaction should run at most - defaults to 16MB/s, but note that it is likely not possible to reach this
throughput.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compactionstats</span></code></dt><dd><p>Statistics about current and pending compactions.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compactionhistory</span></code></dt><dd><p>List details about the last compactions.</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setcompactionthreshold</span></code></dt><dd><p>Set the min/max sstable count for when to trigger compaction, defaults to 4/32.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="section" id="switching-the-compaction-strategy-and-options-using-jmx">
<h2>Switching the compaction strategy and options using JMX<a class="headerlink" href="#switching-the-compaction-strategy-and-options-using-jmx" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>It is possible to switch compaction strategies and its options on just a single node using JMX, this is a great way to
experiment with settings without affecting the whole cluster. The mbean is:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>org.apache.cassandra.db:type=ColumnFamilies,keyspace=&lt;keyspace_name&gt;,columnfamily=&lt;table_name&gt;
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>and the attribute to change is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CompactionParameters</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CompactionParametersJson</span></code> if you use jconsole or jmc. The
syntax for the json version is the same as you would use in an <a class="reference internal" href="../../cql/ddl.html#alter-table-statement"><span class="std std-ref">ALTER TABLE</span></a> statement -
for example:</p>
<div class="highlight-none notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>{ &#39;class&#39;: &#39;LeveledCompactionStrategy&#39;, &#39;sstable_size_in_mb&#39;: 123, &#39;fanout_size&#39;: 10}
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The setting is kept until someone executes an <a class="reference internal" href="../../cql/ddl.html#alter-table-statement"><span class="std std-ref">ALTER TABLE</span></a> that touches the compaction
settings or restarts the node.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="more-detailed-compaction-logging">
<span id="detailed-compaction-logging"></span><h2>More detailed compaction logging<a class="headerlink" href="#more-detailed-compaction-logging" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Enable with the compaction option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">log_all</span></code> and a more detailed compaction log file will be produced in your log
directory.</p>
</div>
</div>
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